B2B
merupakan sistem komunikasi bisnis antar pelaku bisnis atau transaksi secara elektronik antar perusahaan yang dilakukan secara rutin dan dalam kapasitas produk yang besar.
Web Hosting adalah salah satu bentuk layanan jasa penyewaan tempat di Internet yang memungkinkan perorangan ataupun organisasi menampilkan layanan jasa atau produknya di web / situs Internet.
Mengapa Perlu Web Hosting
Kecepatan menyebarkan informasi tentang Jasa, Produk, Layanan Publik dan lainnya merupakan salah satu tolok ukur keberhasilan bisnis perorangan atau perusahaan, dan kami IndoGlobalWeb hadir untuk kebutuhan anda tersebut.
KARAKTERISTIK B2B
1. Trading Partner : Pertukaran informasi hanya berlangsung diantara mereka dan karena sudah mengenal, maka pertukaran dilakukan atas dasar kebutuhan dan kepercayaan.
2. Pertukaran data dilakukan secara berulang dan berskala dengan format data yang telah disepakati. Jadi service yang dipergunakan antar kedua sistem tersebut sama dan menggunakan standar yang sama pula.
3. Salah satu pelaku tidak harus menunggu partner mereka lainnya untuk mengirimkan data.
4. Model yang umum digunakan adalah peer to peer, dimana processing intelligence dapat didistribusikan di kedua pelaku bisnis.
AKTIFITAS B2B
- market inteliiegence (mengumpulkan informasi lengkap mengenai produk yang akan dibeli atau jasa yang akan digunakan, mulai dari spesifikasi, servis, kualitas dan kuantitasnya.)
- prepurchasing(menyiapkan proposal pembelian, mencari tau permintaan kuantitas,menyediakan spesifikasi, negoisasi)
- purchasing(menyiapkan pemesanan, persetujuan pengiriman, persetujuan pemesanan)
- shipping & penerimaan barang(mengimformasikan jadwal pengiriman barang,mendapatkan faktur pengiriman barang)
- Pembayaran(dilakukan secara online atau melalui bank)
B2C
merupakan sebuah proses yang terjadi apabila organisasi atau perusahaan menjual produk atau jasa kepada konsumennya melalui jaringan internet.
Aktifitas B2C
- promotion
- ordering
- delivery
- after sales service
BISNIS proses b2c
- bisnis proses pada b2c menjelaskan dasar2 dari kerangka kerja sebuah bisni(2w1h)
*segmentasi pasar(who)
*layanan/produk yang ditawarkan(what)
*bagaimana cara kerjanya(how)
contoh : bisnis proses ebay.com
who-siapapun
what- produk apapun
how- pertukaran barang dengan lelang
nilai bisnis - efisiensi
kelebihan- harga yang murah dan pilihan yang beragam
Tantangan Utama dalam b2c
- membutuhkan OS dan aplikasi khusus
- membangun privasi & kepercayaan konsumen
- menciptakan ketergantungan dan loyalitas
- kelengkapan, keragaman dan ketersediaan barang/jasa.
Klasifikasi B2c
- auction stores(memberikan pelayanan dalam bidan perdagangan)
- online stores(untuk tempat menjual/membeli secara digital dgn memilih, memesan barang lewat internet.
- online service(tempat utk meminta informasi dan servis lain dr perusahaan dgn cepat dan mudah.
- other service(layanan yg memberikan fasilitas untuk penjualan produk/jasa diluar klasifikasi yg sudah diberikan.
Rabu, 19 Januari 2011
MK_E-BUSSINESS
Visi dan Prospek Membangun e-Business
Membangun sistem e-Business buka hanya mengkomputerisasi SI bisnis yang kemudian dihubungkan ke Internet. Jika pemahaman itu yang menjadi landasan dalam membangun sistem e-Business, maka niscaya sistem itu sulit untuk bertahan.
1.Adanya keinginan yang kuat dan konsisten untuk membangun hubungan langsung dengan konsumen.
2.Pembangunan Jaringan Komunitas
3.perluasan pasar
4.Masuk era persaingan global
Tahap-Tahap pembentukan Sistem e-Business
1.Mendayagunakan komputer personal, jaringan komputer dan Internet seoptimal mungkin
2.Membangun halaman web untuk jalinan komunikasi antara perusahaan dengan konsumen secara efektif dan fleksibel
3.Membangun SI e-Business yang efektif
4.Mengembangkan SI yang bersifat inter platform
Kegagalan si e-business
Faktor-faktor penyebab kegagalan
1.Sering orang memandang SI e-Business adalah paling utama dan penting, sementara melupakan komitmen dan konsistensi terhadap materi informasi, produk dan respon layanan kepada konsumen
2.Antar-muka SI e-Business sering kurang interaktif, kurang komunikatif dan kurang mudah digunakan oleh konsumen, karena antar muka sering dibangun berdasarkan selera pembuatnya
3.Perubahan cara pandang, pola berbisnis, dan sistim dari tradisonal dan lokal menjadi moderen dan global; perusahaan dan pebisnis membutuhkan waktu untuk beradaptasi dengan perubahan tersebut.
KEbutuhan SISTEM E_BIZNIS
- Efisien dan efektif
- Trend masa depan
- integrated dengan sistem lain
- KEamanan data
- interaktif
E_BUSINES DAN BISNIS
bukan :
Bukan....
hanya meletakkan sebuah halaman web atau hanya web yang memungkinkan aplikasi yang telah ada.
E-BIz :
Menggunakan teknologi untuk....
redefine bisnis, memaksimalkan nilai pelanggan, memungkinkan bisnis dengan cara baru
mengubah lanskap kompetitif, saluran distribusidampak pasang pasar, memperluas jangkauan pasar meningkatkan kecepatan bisnis, menyederhanakan interaksi, meningkatkan harapan pelanggan membuat dan membunuh perusahaan
PERSYARATAN BARU PADA E-BUSSINESS
Bisnis : Flexsibel, responsif, cepat berfokus pada pelanggan, inventif, inovatif, kolaboratif, self-service, global.
SISTEM : mudah digunakan, terintegrasi,handal, kokoh, responsif, fleksibel, mudah maintable, akurat, terukur, global, aman.
Perubahan pola dari sistem tradisonal menuju e-Business
1.Pola Belanja
2.Pola pemilihan barang
3.Pola transaksi
4.Pola konsumsi
5.Pola perolehan produk
6.Pola pembayaran
7.Pola komunikasi antara penjual dan pembeli
Konsumen e-busines memiliki sikap-sikap
1.Kritis terhadap penwaran-penawaran produk
2.Sensitif terhadap harga
3.Sensitif terhadap kualitas
4.Menuntut jaminan atau garansi atas produk
5.Menuntut teknik penyajian halaman web yang secara kognitif
Memperkenalkan Situs Secara On-line
1.Manfaatkan e-Mail secara efektif
2. Letakkanlah Uniform Resource Location(URL) dari situs tersebut di berbagai Search Engine
3.Buatlah sesuatu yang berkesan pada situs tersebut
4.Mengadakan kerjasama
Memperkenalkan Situs secara off-line
1.Tabloid atau majalah
2.Jurnal
3.Koran
4.Spanduk atau billboard
Strategi untuk menghadapi kompetisi
1.Cost Leadership Strategy
2.Differentiation Strategy
3.Focus Strategy
4.Growth Strategy
5.Alliance Strategy
6.Inovation strategy
7.Internal efficiency Strategy
8.Costumer Oriented Strategy
Membangun sistem e-Business buka hanya mengkomputerisasi SI bisnis yang kemudian dihubungkan ke Internet. Jika pemahaman itu yang menjadi landasan dalam membangun sistem e-Business, maka niscaya sistem itu sulit untuk bertahan.
1.Adanya keinginan yang kuat dan konsisten untuk membangun hubungan langsung dengan konsumen.
2.Pembangunan Jaringan Komunitas
3.perluasan pasar
4.Masuk era persaingan global
Tahap-Tahap pembentukan Sistem e-Business
1.Mendayagunakan komputer personal, jaringan komputer dan Internet seoptimal mungkin
2.Membangun halaman web untuk jalinan komunikasi antara perusahaan dengan konsumen secara efektif dan fleksibel
3.Membangun SI e-Business yang efektif
4.Mengembangkan SI yang bersifat inter platform
Kegagalan si e-business
Faktor-faktor penyebab kegagalan
1.Sering orang memandang SI e-Business adalah paling utama dan penting, sementara melupakan komitmen dan konsistensi terhadap materi informasi, produk dan respon layanan kepada konsumen
2.Antar-muka SI e-Business sering kurang interaktif, kurang komunikatif dan kurang mudah digunakan oleh konsumen, karena antar muka sering dibangun berdasarkan selera pembuatnya
3.Perubahan cara pandang, pola berbisnis, dan sistim dari tradisonal dan lokal menjadi moderen dan global; perusahaan dan pebisnis membutuhkan waktu untuk beradaptasi dengan perubahan tersebut.
KEbutuhan SISTEM E_BIZNIS
- Efisien dan efektif
- Trend masa depan
- integrated dengan sistem lain
- KEamanan data
- interaktif
E_BUSINES DAN BISNIS
bukan :
Bukan....
hanya meletakkan sebuah halaman web atau hanya web yang memungkinkan aplikasi yang telah ada.
E-BIz :
Menggunakan teknologi untuk....
redefine bisnis, memaksimalkan nilai pelanggan, memungkinkan bisnis dengan cara baru
mengubah lanskap kompetitif, saluran distribusidampak pasang pasar, memperluas jangkauan pasar meningkatkan kecepatan bisnis, menyederhanakan interaksi, meningkatkan harapan pelanggan membuat dan membunuh perusahaan
PERSYARATAN BARU PADA E-BUSSINESS
Bisnis : Flexsibel, responsif, cepat berfokus pada pelanggan, inventif, inovatif, kolaboratif, self-service, global.
SISTEM : mudah digunakan, terintegrasi,handal, kokoh, responsif, fleksibel, mudah maintable, akurat, terukur, global, aman.
Perubahan pola dari sistem tradisonal menuju e-Business
1.Pola Belanja
2.Pola pemilihan barang
3.Pola transaksi
4.Pola konsumsi
5.Pola perolehan produk
6.Pola pembayaran
7.Pola komunikasi antara penjual dan pembeli
Konsumen e-busines memiliki sikap-sikap
1.Kritis terhadap penwaran-penawaran produk
2.Sensitif terhadap harga
3.Sensitif terhadap kualitas
4.Menuntut jaminan atau garansi atas produk
5.Menuntut teknik penyajian halaman web yang secara kognitif
Memperkenalkan Situs Secara On-line
1.Manfaatkan e-Mail secara efektif
2. Letakkanlah Uniform Resource Location(URL) dari situs tersebut di berbagai Search Engine
3.Buatlah sesuatu yang berkesan pada situs tersebut
4.Mengadakan kerjasama
Memperkenalkan Situs secara off-line
1.Tabloid atau majalah
2.Jurnal
3.Koran
4.Spanduk atau billboard
Strategi untuk menghadapi kompetisi
1.Cost Leadership Strategy
2.Differentiation Strategy
3.Focus Strategy
4.Growth Strategy
5.Alliance Strategy
6.Inovation strategy
7.Internal efficiency Strategy
8.Costumer Oriented Strategy
E-Bussines
Pengantar
* Perangkat teknologi informasi (alat, transformer)
* Teknologi informasi(data, proses, dikirim)
* Arsitektur TI (orang, proses, teknologi)
KONSEP E-COMMERCE
EC adalah proses pembelian, proses penjualan, proses pertukaran barang/jasa, proses pertukaran informasi melalui jaringan internet. EC bisa diartikan sebagai komunikasi bersifat online menawarkan layanan2, melakukan proses bisnis, bekerja sama, menjalin komunitas. Contoh EC adalah Yahoo dan Facebook
1. Pure EC; seluruh komponen bersifat digital. Diantaranya ada organisasi yang bersifat online, penjualan yang hanya bersifat online.
2. Partial EC; penjualnya nyata namun berbelanja secara online juga bisa.
E-Commerce merupakan suatu aplikasi dan proses bisnis yang menghubungkan perusahaan , konsumen dan komunitas tertentu melalui transaksi elektronik dan perdagangan barang , pelayanan dan informasi yang dilakukan secara elektronik.
E-Business merupakan kegiatan berbisnis di Internet yang tidak saja meliputi pembelian, penjualan dan jasa, tapi juga meliputi pelayanan pelanggan dan kerja sama dengan rekan bisnis (baik individual maupun instansi).
Bentuk Bisnis Dalam EC : bersifat online, sistem tender elektronik, lelang online,afiliasi pemasaran, marketing, kustomisasi produk dan jasa.
Manfaat EC :
keuntungannya memperluas jaringan usaha; menurunkan biaya pembuatan, pemrosesan, distribusi, penyimpanan dan pengambilan informasi, mengurangi biaya persediaan yang tiba-tiba.
STRUKTUR MODED BISNIS
Penjualan (biaya penghasilan, biaya produksi, costumer)
Entiti(distributor, retail, kontraktor, supplier, busines to busines, sales)
internet
entiti(pemilik usaha, tempat pengolahan, bank)
Sumber Penghasilan
- Transaction fees (biaya transaksi)
- subcription fees (biaya pendaftaran)
- advertisement fees (biaya iklan)
- affiliate fees (menjual lagi untuk dapat keuntungan)
- Sales.
Positive EC:
- Revenue Stream (aliran pendapatan) baru yang mungkin lebih menjanjikan dan tidak bisa ditemui di sistem transaksi tradisional.
- Dapat meningkatkan market exposure (pangsa pasar).
- Menurunkan biaya operasional (operating cost).
- Melebarkan jangkauan (global reach).
- Meningkatkan customer loyality.
- Memperpendek waktu produksi.
- Meningkatkan value chain (mata rantai pendapatan)
NEGATIVE
*Pencurian informasi rahasia yang berharga. Gangguan yang timbul bisa menyingkap semua informasi rahasia tersebut kepada pihak-pihak yang tidak berhak dan dapat mengakibatkan kerugian yang besar bagi si korban.
*Kehilangan kesempatan bisnis karena gangguan pelayanan. Kesalahan ini bersifat kesalahan non-teknis seperti aliran listrik tiba-tiba padam atau jaringan yang tidak berfungsi.
*Kehilangan kepercayaan dari para konsumen. Ini karena berbagai macam faktor seperti usaha yang dilakukan dengan sengaja oleh pihak lain yang berusaha menjatuhkan reputasi perusahaan tersebut.
*Penggunaan akses ke sumber oleh pihak yang tidak berhak. Misalkan pembobolan sebuah sistem perbankan oleh hacker, kemudian memindahkan sejumlah rekening orang lain ke rekeningnya sendiri.
*Kerugian yang tidak terduga. Disebabkan oleh gangguan yang dilakukan dengan sengaja, ketidakjujuran, praktek bisnis yang tidak benar, dan kesalahan faktor manusia atau kesalahan sistem elektronik.
BUSINESS TO CUSTOMER(B2C)
b2c adalah suatu proses dimana seseorang atau sekelompok orang yang melakukan transasksi jual beli kepada konsumen berupa barang atau jasa atau informasi melalui jaringan internet. B2C merupakan transaksi berbasis web yang menjual produk secara online. disebut juga shopping mall karena trasaksi jual belinya secara online.
b2c menawarkan sistem yang memiliki karakter, seperti mengakses melalui internet, pembayaran cash atau carry
PO :
1. Bagi masyarakat gampang mendapat informasi
2. servis bisa didapatkan bersifat umum (generic)
3. servis hanya bersifat memohon/pemesanannya berdasarkan permintaan
4. pendekatan kepada konsumen terbatas
5. transaksi sederhana tapi jarang terjadi
6. nilai transaksi relatif kecil
CONTOH E-BUSINESS
-e-banking, e- learning, e-franchising, e-commerce, e-marketing, e-mailing
B2C, B2B, B2G, B2E
KEBUTUHAN SISTEM EB
* efisien dan efektif
* trend masa depan
* integraded dg sistem lain.
* Keamanan data
* Interaktif
Kegagalan si e-business
Faktor-faktor penyebab kegagalan
1.Sering orang memandang SI e-Business adalah paling utama dan penting, sementara melupakan komitmen dan konsistensi terhadap materi informasi, produk dan respon layanan kepada konsumen
2.Antar-muka SI e-Business sering kurang interaktif, kurang komunikatif dan kurang mudah digunakan oleh konsumen, karena antar muka sering dibangun berdasarkan selera pembuatnya
3.Perubahan cara pandang, pola berbisnis, dan sistim dari tradisonal dan lokal menjadi moderen dan global; perusahaan dan pebisnis membutuhkan waktu untuk beradaptasi dengan perubahan tersebut.
Jenis e-Business
Business to Business (B2B)
Business to Customer (B2C
Customer to Customer (C2C)
Customer to Business (C2B)
Business to government (B2G)
Manfaat e-Business
Bagi Perusahaan atau pebisnis perorangan
1.Memperpendek jarak
2.Perluasan pasar
3.Perluasan jaringan mitra kerja
4.Biaya terkendali
5.Efisien
6.Cash flow terjamin
7.Manfaat lainya
Bagi Konsumen
1.Efektif
2.Biaya terkendali
3.Aman secara fisik
4.Harga murah
5.Fleksibel
Bagi masyarakat pada umumnya
1.Peluang kerja baru
2.Wahana kompetisi
Bagi dunia Akademis
1.Tantangan baru
2.Para peneliti tertantang untuk malekukan analisis terhadap pergeseran pola bisnis
3.Membuka kerangka baru dalam penjualan jasa pendidikan
Latar belakang pembentukan situs e-Business
1.Kebutuhan Konsumen
2.Keprihatinan atau kesadaran konsumen
3.Kondisi sosial, ekonomi dan demografi
Hambatan e-Business di Indonesia
1.Belum terbentuknya high trust society
2.Pada umumnya harga produk tidak dapat ditawar lagi
3.Sarana prasarana masih belum memadai
4.masih sangat sedikit SDM yang memahami dan menguasai konsep dan implementasi TI
5.Jasa pos masih membutuhkan pembenahan dan peningkatan
6.Adanya tindak kejahatan kartu kredit
7.Perbedaan platform
8.Masih menunggu
9.e-Business masih dipandang sebelah mata
10.Konsumen yang aktif
11.Etika dan moralitas
Transaksi e-Busines
1.Pemilihan produk
2.Inisialisasi pembelian
3.Permintaan otorisasi
4.Otorisasi
5.Pemintaan pelunasan
6.Pengiriman barang
Ditinjau dari alat pembayarannya maka dapat dikelompokan sbb:
1.Sistem uang digital (anonymous)
2.Cek elektronik
3.Kredit Card Elektronik
4.Elektronik funds transfer
* Perangkat teknologi informasi (alat, transformer)
* Teknologi informasi(data, proses, dikirim)
* Arsitektur TI (orang, proses, teknologi)
KONSEP E-COMMERCE
EC adalah proses pembelian, proses penjualan, proses pertukaran barang/jasa, proses pertukaran informasi melalui jaringan internet. EC bisa diartikan sebagai komunikasi bersifat online menawarkan layanan2, melakukan proses bisnis, bekerja sama, menjalin komunitas. Contoh EC adalah Yahoo dan Facebook
1. Pure EC; seluruh komponen bersifat digital. Diantaranya ada organisasi yang bersifat online, penjualan yang hanya bersifat online.
2. Partial EC; penjualnya nyata namun berbelanja secara online juga bisa.
E-Commerce merupakan suatu aplikasi dan proses bisnis yang menghubungkan perusahaan , konsumen dan komunitas tertentu melalui transaksi elektronik dan perdagangan barang , pelayanan dan informasi yang dilakukan secara elektronik.
E-Business merupakan kegiatan berbisnis di Internet yang tidak saja meliputi pembelian, penjualan dan jasa, tapi juga meliputi pelayanan pelanggan dan kerja sama dengan rekan bisnis (baik individual maupun instansi).
Bentuk Bisnis Dalam EC : bersifat online, sistem tender elektronik, lelang online,afiliasi pemasaran, marketing, kustomisasi produk dan jasa.
Manfaat EC :
keuntungannya memperluas jaringan usaha; menurunkan biaya pembuatan, pemrosesan, distribusi, penyimpanan dan pengambilan informasi, mengurangi biaya persediaan yang tiba-tiba.
STRUKTUR MODED BISNIS
Penjualan (biaya penghasilan, biaya produksi, costumer)
Entiti(distributor, retail, kontraktor, supplier, busines to busines, sales)
internet
entiti(pemilik usaha, tempat pengolahan, bank)
Sumber Penghasilan
- Transaction fees (biaya transaksi)
- subcription fees (biaya pendaftaran)
- advertisement fees (biaya iklan)
- affiliate fees (menjual lagi untuk dapat keuntungan)
- Sales.
Positive EC:
- Revenue Stream (aliran pendapatan) baru yang mungkin lebih menjanjikan dan tidak bisa ditemui di sistem transaksi tradisional.
- Dapat meningkatkan market exposure (pangsa pasar).
- Menurunkan biaya operasional (operating cost).
- Melebarkan jangkauan (global reach).
- Meningkatkan customer loyality.
- Memperpendek waktu produksi.
- Meningkatkan value chain (mata rantai pendapatan)
NEGATIVE
*Pencurian informasi rahasia yang berharga. Gangguan yang timbul bisa menyingkap semua informasi rahasia tersebut kepada pihak-pihak yang tidak berhak dan dapat mengakibatkan kerugian yang besar bagi si korban.
*Kehilangan kesempatan bisnis karena gangguan pelayanan. Kesalahan ini bersifat kesalahan non-teknis seperti aliran listrik tiba-tiba padam atau jaringan yang tidak berfungsi.
*Kehilangan kepercayaan dari para konsumen. Ini karena berbagai macam faktor seperti usaha yang dilakukan dengan sengaja oleh pihak lain yang berusaha menjatuhkan reputasi perusahaan tersebut.
*Penggunaan akses ke sumber oleh pihak yang tidak berhak. Misalkan pembobolan sebuah sistem perbankan oleh hacker, kemudian memindahkan sejumlah rekening orang lain ke rekeningnya sendiri.
*Kerugian yang tidak terduga. Disebabkan oleh gangguan yang dilakukan dengan sengaja, ketidakjujuran, praktek bisnis yang tidak benar, dan kesalahan faktor manusia atau kesalahan sistem elektronik.
BUSINESS TO CUSTOMER(B2C)
b2c adalah suatu proses dimana seseorang atau sekelompok orang yang melakukan transasksi jual beli kepada konsumen berupa barang atau jasa atau informasi melalui jaringan internet. B2C merupakan transaksi berbasis web yang menjual produk secara online. disebut juga shopping mall karena trasaksi jual belinya secara online.
b2c menawarkan sistem yang memiliki karakter, seperti mengakses melalui internet, pembayaran cash atau carry
PO :
1. Bagi masyarakat gampang mendapat informasi
2. servis bisa didapatkan bersifat umum (generic)
3. servis hanya bersifat memohon/pemesanannya berdasarkan permintaan
4. pendekatan kepada konsumen terbatas
5. transaksi sederhana tapi jarang terjadi
6. nilai transaksi relatif kecil
CONTOH E-BUSINESS
-e-banking, e- learning, e-franchising, e-commerce, e-marketing, e-mailing
B2C, B2B, B2G, B2E
KEBUTUHAN SISTEM EB
* efisien dan efektif
* trend masa depan
* integraded dg sistem lain.
* Keamanan data
* Interaktif
Kegagalan si e-business
Faktor-faktor penyebab kegagalan
1.Sering orang memandang SI e-Business adalah paling utama dan penting, sementara melupakan komitmen dan konsistensi terhadap materi informasi, produk dan respon layanan kepada konsumen
2.Antar-muka SI e-Business sering kurang interaktif, kurang komunikatif dan kurang mudah digunakan oleh konsumen, karena antar muka sering dibangun berdasarkan selera pembuatnya
3.Perubahan cara pandang, pola berbisnis, dan sistim dari tradisonal dan lokal menjadi moderen dan global; perusahaan dan pebisnis membutuhkan waktu untuk beradaptasi dengan perubahan tersebut.
Jenis e-Business
Business to Business (B2B)
Business to Customer (B2C
Customer to Customer (C2C)
Customer to Business (C2B)
Business to government (B2G)
Manfaat e-Business
Bagi Perusahaan atau pebisnis perorangan
1.Memperpendek jarak
2.Perluasan pasar
3.Perluasan jaringan mitra kerja
4.Biaya terkendali
5.Efisien
6.Cash flow terjamin
7.Manfaat lainya
Bagi Konsumen
1.Efektif
2.Biaya terkendali
3.Aman secara fisik
4.Harga murah
5.Fleksibel
Bagi masyarakat pada umumnya
1.Peluang kerja baru
2.Wahana kompetisi
Bagi dunia Akademis
1.Tantangan baru
2.Para peneliti tertantang untuk malekukan analisis terhadap pergeseran pola bisnis
3.Membuka kerangka baru dalam penjualan jasa pendidikan
Latar belakang pembentukan situs e-Business
1.Kebutuhan Konsumen
2.Keprihatinan atau kesadaran konsumen
3.Kondisi sosial, ekonomi dan demografi
Hambatan e-Business di Indonesia
1.Belum terbentuknya high trust society
2.Pada umumnya harga produk tidak dapat ditawar lagi
3.Sarana prasarana masih belum memadai
4.masih sangat sedikit SDM yang memahami dan menguasai konsep dan implementasi TI
5.Jasa pos masih membutuhkan pembenahan dan peningkatan
6.Adanya tindak kejahatan kartu kredit
7.Perbedaan platform
8.Masih menunggu
9.e-Business masih dipandang sebelah mata
10.Konsumen yang aktif
11.Etika dan moralitas
Transaksi e-Busines
1.Pemilihan produk
2.Inisialisasi pembelian
3.Permintaan otorisasi
4.Otorisasi
5.Pemintaan pelunasan
6.Pengiriman barang
Ditinjau dari alat pembayarannya maka dapat dikelompokan sbb:
1.Sistem uang digital (anonymous)
2.Cek elektronik
3.Kredit Card Elektronik
4.Elektronik funds transfer
Selasa, 18 Januari 2011
gerund
Gerunds and Infinitives Part 1
1. A gerund is a noun made from a verb by adding "-ing." The gerund form of the verb "read" is "reading." You can use a gerund as the subject, the complement, or the object of a sentence.
Examples:
• Reading helps you learn English. subject of sentence
• Her favorite hobby is reading. complement of sentence
• I enjoy reading. object of sentence
Gerunds can be made negative by adding "not."
Examples:
• He enjoys not working.
• The best thing for your health is not smoking.
2. Infinitives are the "to" form of the verb. The infinitive form of "learn" is "to learn." You can also use an infinitive as the subject, the complement, or the object of a sentence.
Examples:
• To learn is important. subject of sentence
• The most important thing is to learn. complement of sentence
• He wants to learn. object of sentence
Infinitives can be made negative by adding "not."
Examples:
• I decided not to go.
• The most important thing is not to give up.
3. Both gerunds and infinitives can be used as the subject or the complement of a sentence. However, as subjects or complements, gerunds usually sound more like normal, spoken English, whereas infinitives sound more abstract. In the following sentences, gerunds sound more natural and would be more common in everyday English. Infinitives emphasize the possibility or potential for something and sound more philosophical. If this sounds confusing, just remember that 90% of the time, you will use a gerund as the subject or complement of a sentence.
Examples:
• Learning is important. normal subject
• To learn is important. abstract subject - less common
• The most important thing is learning. normal complement
• The most important thing is to learn. abstract complement - less common
4. As the object of a sentence, it is more difficult to choose between a gerund or an infinitive. In such situations, gerunds and infinitives are not normally interchangeable. Usually, the main verb in the sentence determines whether you use a gerund or an infinitive.
Examples:
• He enjoys swimming. "Enjoy" requires a gerund.
• He wants to swim. "Want" requires an infinitive.
5. Some verbs are followed by gerunds as objects. List of Verbs Followed by Gerunds
Examples:
• She suggested going to a movie.
• Mary keeps talking about her problems.
6. Some verbs are followed by infinitives. List of Verbs Followed by Infinitives
Examples:
• She wants to go to a movie.
• Mary needs to talk about her problems.
Gerunds and Infinitives Part 2
7. Gerunds can often be modified with possessive forms such as his, her, its, your, their, our, John's, Mary's, the machine's, and so on. This makes it clearer who or what is performing the action.
Examples:
• I enjoyed their singing. They were singing.
• She understood his saying no to the offer. He said no.
• Sam resented Debbie's coming late to the dinner. Debbie came late to the dinner.
• We discussed the machine's being broken. The machine is broken.
8. Some verbs are followed by a noun plus an infinitive. In some situations, the noun is required. In other situations, the noun is optional. List of Verbs Followed by a Noun + an Infinitive
Examples:
• The police ordered the man to stop. noun is required
• She asked to leave. noun is optional
• She asked him to leave. noun is optional
9. Some verbs are usually followed by a gerund, BUT they can also be followed by a noun plus infinitive. Using a noun plus infinitive will usually change who is performing the action. List of Verbs followed by a Gerund OR a Noun + Infinitive
Examples:
• I advised taking the train. in general
• I advised him to take the train. He will take the train.
10. There are many "go + gerund" expressions used for adventure sports and individual recreational activities. List of Go + Gerund Combinations
Examples:
• I go swimming every weekend.
• Would you ever go skydiving?
11. Gerunds are used after prepositions. Most commonly, these are "verb + preposition" combinations. For reference, see the Verb + Preposition Dictionary and the Phrasal Verb Dictionary. You don't have to memorize these resources, you just need to remember that gerunds are used after prepositions!
Examples:
• They admitted to committing the crime.
• Leslie made up for forgetting my birthday.
• He is thinking about studying abroad.
12. Remember that there are many "adjective + preposition" combinations and "noun + preposition" combinations in English as well. These are also followed by gerunds. List of Adjective + Preposition Combinations Followed by Gerunds and List of Noun + Preposition Combinations Followed by Gerunds. Once again, you don't have to memorize these resources, you just need to remember that gerunds are used after prepositions!
Examples:
• Sandy is scared of flying. adjective + preposition
• Nick is anxious about taking the examination. adjective + preposition
• His interest in becoming a professional snowboarder was well known. noun + preposition
• Thomas' story about seeing a grizzly bear was really exciting. noun + preposition
Gerunds and Infinitives Part 3
13. Some verbs can be followed by a gerund or an infinitive, but with a difference in meaning. List of Verbs Followed by a Gerund or Infinitive (Different Meaning)
Examples:
• Nancy remembered getting married. Nancy has a memory of getting married.
• Fred remembered to bring sunblock to the beach. Fred remembered that he needed to bring sunblock.
14. Some verbs can be followed by a gerund or an infinitive with little difference in meaning. List of Verbs Followed by a Gerund or Infinitive (Similar Meaning)
Examples:
• She likes swimming.
• She likes to swim.
Although the difference in meaning is small with these particular verbs, and gerunds and infinitives can often be used interchangeably, there is still a meaning difference. Using a gerund suggests that you are referring to real activities or experiences. Using an infinitive suggests that you are talking about potential or possible activities or experiences. Because of this small difference in meaning, gerunds and infinitives cannot always be used interchangeably, such as in the examples below.
Examples:
• The British reporter likes living in New York. He lives in New York and he likes what he experiences there.
• The British reporter likes to live in New York whenever he works in the United States. He likes the option or possibility of living in New York when he works in the United States.
• I like speaking French because it's such a beautiful language. I like the experience of speaking French, and the way it makes me feel when I speak the language.
• I like to speak French when I'm in France. I prefer the option of speaking French when I am in France.
15. There are many "be + adjective" combinations that are commonly followed by infinitives. List of Be + Adjective Combinations Followed by Infinitives
Examples:
• They were anxious to begin.
• She was delighted to receive such good feedback.
• He is lucky to have such good friends.
16. There are also many nouns that are commonly followed by infinitives. List of Nouns Followed by Infinitives
Examples:
• It was a good decision to move to San Francisco.
• His wish to become an actor was well known.
• Laura's desire to improve impressed me.
17. Sometimes infinitives are used to express the idea of "in order to do something."
Examples:
• He bought the English dictionary to look up difficult words. in order to look up
• Janine sold her car to get the money that she needed. in order to get
• Juan uses Englishpage.com to learn English. in order to learn
This idea of "in order to do something" is found in many English patterns.
too + adjective/adverb + infinitive
Examples:
• The box is too heavy to carry.
• The television is too expensive to buy.
• Fiona ran too slowly to win the race.
• We arrived too late to see the beginning of the movie.
adjective/adverb + enough + infinitive
Examples:
• She is tall enough to reach the book on the shelf.
• Brian was smart enough to enter college at the age of 12.
• Linda runs quickly enough to win the race.
enough + noun(s) + infinitive
Examples:
• He has enough money to buy his own car.
• Cheryl owns enough books to start her own library!
• Diane needs enough time to finish writing her book.
18. Certain expressions are followed by "ING" forms. List of Expressions followed by Verb+ing Forms
Examples:
• He had fun fishing.
• They had difficulty finding a parking place.
• She spent her time practicing the piano.
19. Verbs which indicate location can often be followed by "ING" forms. This pattern is VERB OF LOCATION + LOCATION + VERB+ING. List of Verbs of Location
Examples:
• Sarah stood at the corner waiting for Tom.
• Melissa lay in bed thinking about her future.
• Don clung to the side of the cliff looking down.
20. In addition to simple gerund and infinitive forms, there are progressive gerund and infinitive forms, passive gerund and infinitive forms and perfect gerund and infinitive forms as well as combinations of these forms. Progressive forms are used to emphasize that an action is taking place now. Passive forms are used to emphasize that the subject of the sentence is being acted upon. Perfect gerund and infinitive forms are used to emphasize completion in both the past and the future. Study the examples below to help understand these concepts. To learn more about progressiveness, the passive voice and the perfect aspect, complete the Englishpage.com Verb Tense Tutorial
Gerund Form
SIMPLE
The teacher enjoys teaching.
PROGRESSIVE
Mr. Smith is really enjoying teaching his class.
Looks the same as simple form above.
PASSIVE
The students enjoy being taught.
PERFECT
The retired teacher recalled having taught.
PASSIVE + PROGRESSIVE
The students are enjoying being taught by such an exciting new teacher.
PASSIVE + PERFECT
The older students recalled having been taught that already.
1. A gerund is a noun made from a verb by adding "-ing." The gerund form of the verb "read" is "reading." You can use a gerund as the subject, the complement, or the object of a sentence.
Examples:
• Reading helps you learn English. subject of sentence
• Her favorite hobby is reading. complement of sentence
• I enjoy reading. object of sentence
Gerunds can be made negative by adding "not."
Examples:
• He enjoys not working.
• The best thing for your health is not smoking.
2. Infinitives are the "to" form of the verb. The infinitive form of "learn" is "to learn." You can also use an infinitive as the subject, the complement, or the object of a sentence.
Examples:
• To learn is important. subject of sentence
• The most important thing is to learn. complement of sentence
• He wants to learn. object of sentence
Infinitives can be made negative by adding "not."
Examples:
• I decided not to go.
• The most important thing is not to give up.
3. Both gerunds and infinitives can be used as the subject or the complement of a sentence. However, as subjects or complements, gerunds usually sound more like normal, spoken English, whereas infinitives sound more abstract. In the following sentences, gerunds sound more natural and would be more common in everyday English. Infinitives emphasize the possibility or potential for something and sound more philosophical. If this sounds confusing, just remember that 90% of the time, you will use a gerund as the subject or complement of a sentence.
Examples:
• Learning is important. normal subject
• To learn is important. abstract subject - less common
• The most important thing is learning. normal complement
• The most important thing is to learn. abstract complement - less common
4. As the object of a sentence, it is more difficult to choose between a gerund or an infinitive. In such situations, gerunds and infinitives are not normally interchangeable. Usually, the main verb in the sentence determines whether you use a gerund or an infinitive.
Examples:
• He enjoys swimming. "Enjoy" requires a gerund.
• He wants to swim. "Want" requires an infinitive.
5. Some verbs are followed by gerunds as objects. List of Verbs Followed by Gerunds
Examples:
• She suggested going to a movie.
• Mary keeps talking about her problems.
6. Some verbs are followed by infinitives. List of Verbs Followed by Infinitives
Examples:
• She wants to go to a movie.
• Mary needs to talk about her problems.
Gerunds and Infinitives Part 2
7. Gerunds can often be modified with possessive forms such as his, her, its, your, their, our, John's, Mary's, the machine's, and so on. This makes it clearer who or what is performing the action.
Examples:
• I enjoyed their singing. They were singing.
• She understood his saying no to the offer. He said no.
• Sam resented Debbie's coming late to the dinner. Debbie came late to the dinner.
• We discussed the machine's being broken. The machine is broken.
8. Some verbs are followed by a noun plus an infinitive. In some situations, the noun is required. In other situations, the noun is optional. List of Verbs Followed by a Noun + an Infinitive
Examples:
• The police ordered the man to stop. noun is required
• She asked to leave. noun is optional
• She asked him to leave. noun is optional
9. Some verbs are usually followed by a gerund, BUT they can also be followed by a noun plus infinitive. Using a noun plus infinitive will usually change who is performing the action. List of Verbs followed by a Gerund OR a Noun + Infinitive
Examples:
• I advised taking the train. in general
• I advised him to take the train. He will take the train.
10. There are many "go + gerund" expressions used for adventure sports and individual recreational activities. List of Go + Gerund Combinations
Examples:
• I go swimming every weekend.
• Would you ever go skydiving?
11. Gerunds are used after prepositions. Most commonly, these are "verb + preposition" combinations. For reference, see the Verb + Preposition Dictionary and the Phrasal Verb Dictionary. You don't have to memorize these resources, you just need to remember that gerunds are used after prepositions!
Examples:
• They admitted to committing the crime.
• Leslie made up for forgetting my birthday.
• He is thinking about studying abroad.
12. Remember that there are many "adjective + preposition" combinations and "noun + preposition" combinations in English as well. These are also followed by gerunds. List of Adjective + Preposition Combinations Followed by Gerunds and List of Noun + Preposition Combinations Followed by Gerunds. Once again, you don't have to memorize these resources, you just need to remember that gerunds are used after prepositions!
Examples:
• Sandy is scared of flying. adjective + preposition
• Nick is anxious about taking the examination. adjective + preposition
• His interest in becoming a professional snowboarder was well known. noun + preposition
• Thomas' story about seeing a grizzly bear was really exciting. noun + preposition
Gerunds and Infinitives Part 3
13. Some verbs can be followed by a gerund or an infinitive, but with a difference in meaning. List of Verbs Followed by a Gerund or Infinitive (Different Meaning)
Examples:
• Nancy remembered getting married. Nancy has a memory of getting married.
• Fred remembered to bring sunblock to the beach. Fred remembered that he needed to bring sunblock.
14. Some verbs can be followed by a gerund or an infinitive with little difference in meaning. List of Verbs Followed by a Gerund or Infinitive (Similar Meaning)
Examples:
• She likes swimming.
• She likes to swim.
Although the difference in meaning is small with these particular verbs, and gerunds and infinitives can often be used interchangeably, there is still a meaning difference. Using a gerund suggests that you are referring to real activities or experiences. Using an infinitive suggests that you are talking about potential or possible activities or experiences. Because of this small difference in meaning, gerunds and infinitives cannot always be used interchangeably, such as in the examples below.
Examples:
• The British reporter likes living in New York. He lives in New York and he likes what he experiences there.
• The British reporter likes to live in New York whenever he works in the United States. He likes the option or possibility of living in New York when he works in the United States.
• I like speaking French because it's such a beautiful language. I like the experience of speaking French, and the way it makes me feel when I speak the language.
• I like to speak French when I'm in France. I prefer the option of speaking French when I am in France.
15. There are many "be + adjective" combinations that are commonly followed by infinitives. List of Be + Adjective Combinations Followed by Infinitives
Examples:
• They were anxious to begin.
• She was delighted to receive such good feedback.
• He is lucky to have such good friends.
16. There are also many nouns that are commonly followed by infinitives. List of Nouns Followed by Infinitives
Examples:
• It was a good decision to move to San Francisco.
• His wish to become an actor was well known.
• Laura's desire to improve impressed me.
17. Sometimes infinitives are used to express the idea of "in order to do something."
Examples:
• He bought the English dictionary to look up difficult words. in order to look up
• Janine sold her car to get the money that she needed. in order to get
• Juan uses Englishpage.com to learn English. in order to learn
This idea of "in order to do something" is found in many English patterns.
too + adjective/adverb + infinitive
Examples:
• The box is too heavy to carry.
• The television is too expensive to buy.
• Fiona ran too slowly to win the race.
• We arrived too late to see the beginning of the movie.
adjective/adverb + enough + infinitive
Examples:
• She is tall enough to reach the book on the shelf.
• Brian was smart enough to enter college at the age of 12.
• Linda runs quickly enough to win the race.
enough + noun(s) + infinitive
Examples:
• He has enough money to buy his own car.
• Cheryl owns enough books to start her own library!
• Diane needs enough time to finish writing her book.
18. Certain expressions are followed by "ING" forms. List of Expressions followed by Verb+ing Forms
Examples:
• He had fun fishing.
• They had difficulty finding a parking place.
• She spent her time practicing the piano.
19. Verbs which indicate location can often be followed by "ING" forms. This pattern is VERB OF LOCATION + LOCATION + VERB+ING. List of Verbs of Location
Examples:
• Sarah stood at the corner waiting for Tom.
• Melissa lay in bed thinking about her future.
• Don clung to the side of the cliff looking down.
20. In addition to simple gerund and infinitive forms, there are progressive gerund and infinitive forms, passive gerund and infinitive forms and perfect gerund and infinitive forms as well as combinations of these forms. Progressive forms are used to emphasize that an action is taking place now. Passive forms are used to emphasize that the subject of the sentence is being acted upon. Perfect gerund and infinitive forms are used to emphasize completion in both the past and the future. Study the examples below to help understand these concepts. To learn more about progressiveness, the passive voice and the perfect aspect, complete the Englishpage.com Verb Tense Tutorial
Gerund Form
SIMPLE
The teacher enjoys teaching.
PROGRESSIVE
Mr. Smith is really enjoying teaching his class.
Looks the same as simple form above.
PASSIVE
The students enjoy being taught.
PERFECT
The retired teacher recalled having taught.
PASSIVE + PROGRESSIVE
The students are enjoying being taught by such an exciting new teacher.
PASSIVE + PERFECT
The older students recalled having been taught that already.
B.ingg
Rumus Past Continuous Tense
Positif: S + was/were + Ving
Negatif: S + was/were + NOT + Ving
Tanya: Was/Were + S + Ving
I was sleeping when my friend came to my house yesterday
USE 1 Interrupted Action in the Past
Use the Past Continuous to indicate that a longer action in the past was interrupted. The interruption is usually a shorter action in the Simple Past. Remember this can be a real interruption or just an interruption in time.
• I was watching TV when she called.
• When the phone rang, she was writing a letter.
• While we were having the picnic, it started to rain.
• What were you doing when the earthquake started?
• I was listening to my iPod, so I didn't hear the fire alarm.
• You were not listening to me when I told you to turn the oven off.
• While John was sleeping last night, someone stole his car.
• Sammy was waiting for us when we got off the plane.
• While I was writing the email, the computer suddenly went off.
USE 2 Specific Time as an Interruption
In USE 1, described above, the Past Continuous is interrupted by a shorter action in the Simple Past. However, you can also use a specific time as an interruption.
Examples:
• Last night at 6 PM, I was eating dinner.
• At midnight, we were still driving through the desert.
• Yesterday at this time, I was sitting at my desk at work.
USE 3 Parallel Actions
When you use the Past Continuous with two actions in the same sentence, it expresses the idea that both actions were happening at the same time. The actions are parallel.
Examples:
• I was studying while he was making dinner.
• While Ellen was reading, Tim was watching television.
• Were you listening while he was talking?
• I wasn't paying attention while I was writing the letter, so I made several mistakes.
• What were you doing while you were waiting?
• Thomas wasn't working, and I wasn't working either.
• They were eating dinner, discussing their plans, and having a good time.
USE 4 Atmosphere
In English, we often use a series of parallel actions to describe the atmosphere at a particular time in the past.
Example:
• When I walked into the office, several people were busily typing, some were talking on the phones, the boss was yelling directions, and customers were waiting to be helped. One customer was yelling at a secretary and waving his hands. Others were complaining to each other about the bad service.
USE 5 Repetition and Irritation with "Always"
The Past Continuous with words such as "always" or "constantly" expresses the idea that something irritating or shocking often happened in the past. The concept is very similar to the expression "used to" but with negative emotion. Remember to put the words "always" or "constantly" between "be" and "verb+ing."
Examples:
• She was always coming to class late.
• He was constantly talking. He annoyed everyone.
• I didn't like them because they were always complaining.
While vs. When
Clauses are groups of words which have meaning, but are often not complete sentences. Some clauses begin with the word "when" such as "when she called" or "when it bit me." Other clauses begin with "while" such as "while she was sleeping" and "while he was surfing." When you talk about things in the past, "when" is most often followed by the verb tense Simple Past, whereas "while" is usually followed by Past Continuous. "While" expresses the idea of "during that time." Study the examples below. They have similar meanings, but they emphasize different parts of the sentence.
Examples:
• I was studying when she called.
• While I was studying, she called.
REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs / Mixed Verbs
It is important to remember that Non-Continuous Verbs cannot be used in any continuous tenses. Also, certain non-continuous meanings for Mixed Verbs cannot be used in continuous tenses. Instead of using Past Continuous with these verbs, you must use Simple Past.
Examples:
• Jane was being at my house when you arrived. Not Correct
• Jane was at my house when you arrived. Correct
ADVERB PLACEMENT
The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.
Examples:
• You were just studying when she called.
• Were you just studying when she called?
ACTIVE / PASSIVE
Examples:
• The salesman was helping the customer when the thief came into the store. Active
• The customer was being helped by the salesman when the thief came into the store. Passive
Present Perfect
FORM
[has/have + past participle]
Examples:
• You have seen that movie many times.
• Have you seen that movie many times?
• You have not seen that movie many times.
USE 1 Unspecified Time Before Now
We use the Present Perfect to say that an action happened at an unspecified time before now. The exact time is not important. You CANNOT use the Present Perfect with specific time expressions such as: yesterday, one year ago, last week, when I was a child, when I lived in Japan, at that moment, that day, one day, etc. We CAN use the Present Perfect with unspecific expressions such as: ever, never, once, many times, several times, before, so far, already, yet, etc.
Examples:
• I have seen that movie twenty times.
• I think I have met him once before.
• There have been many earthquakes in California.
• People have traveled to the Moon.
• People have not traveled to Mars.
• Have you read the book yet?
• Nobody has ever climbed that mountain.
• A: Has there ever been a war in the United States?
B: Yes, there has been a war in the United States.
TOPIC 1 Experience
You can use the Present Perfect to describe your experience. It is like saying, "I have the experience of..." You can also use this tense to say that you have never had a certain experience. The Present Perfect is NOT used to describe a specific event.
Examples:
• I have been to France.
This sentence means that you have had the experience of being in France. Maybe you have been there once, or several times.
• I have been to France three times.
You can add the number of times at the end of the sentence.
• I have never been to France.
This sentence means that you have not had the experience of going to France.
• I think I have seen that movie before.
• He has never traveled by train.
• Joan has studied two foreign languages.
TOPIC 2 Change Over Time
We often use the Present Perfect to talk about change that has happened over a period of time.
Examples:
• You have grown since the last time I saw you.
• The government has become more interested in arts education.
• Japanese has become one of the most popular courses at the university since the Asian studies program was established.
• My English has really improved since I moved to Australia.
TOPIC 3 Accomplishments
We often use the Present Perfect to list the accomplishments of individuals and humanity. You cannot mention a specific time.
Examples:
• Man has walked on the Moon.
• Our son has learned how to read.
• Doctors have cured many deadly diseases.
• Scientists have split the atom.
TOPIC 4 An Uncompleted Action You Are Expecting
We often use the Present Perfect to say that an action which we expected has not happened. Using the Present Perfect suggests that we are still waiting for the action to happen.
Examples:
• James has not finished his homework yet.
• Susan hasn't mastered Japanese, but she can communicate.
• Bill has still not arrived.
• The rain hasn't stopped.
TOPIC 5 Multiple Actions at Different Times
We also use the Present Perfect to talk about several different actions which have occurred in the past at different times. Present Perfect suggests the process is not complete and more actions are possible.
Examples:
• The army has attacked that city five times.
• I have had four quizzes and five tests so far this semester.
• We have had many major problems while working on this project.
• She has talked to several specialists about her problem, but nobody knows why she is sick.
Time Expressions with Present Perfect
When we use the Present Perfect it means that something has happened at some point in our lives before now. Remember, the exact time the action happened is not important.
Sometimes, we want to limit the time we are looking in for an experience. We can do this with expressions such as: in the last week, in the last year, this week, this month, so far, up to now, etc.
Examples:
• Have you been to Mexico in the last year?
• I have seen that movie six times in the last month.
• They have had three tests in the last week.
• She graduated from university less than three years ago. She has worked for three different companies so far.
• My car has broken down three times this week.
NOTICE
"Last year" and "in the last year" are very different in meaning. "Last year" means the year before now, and it is considered a specific time which requires Simple Past. "In the last year" means from 365 days ago until now. It is not considered a specific time, so it requires Present Perfect.
Examples:
• I went to Mexico last year.
I went to Mexico in the calendar year before this one.
• I have been to Mexico in the last year.
I have been to Mexico at least once at some point between 365 days ago and now.
USE 2 Duration From the Past Until Now (Non-Continuous Verbs)
With Non-Continuous Verbs and non-continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, we use the Present Perfect to show that something started in the past and has continued up until now. "For five minutes," "for two weeks," and "since Tuesday" are all durations which can be used with the Present Perfect.
Examples:
• I have had a cold for two weeks.
• She has been in England for six months.
• Mary has loved chocolate since she was a little girl.
Although the above use of Present Perfect is normally limited to Non-Continuous Verbs and non-continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, the words "live," "work," "teach," and "study" are sometimes used in this way even though they are NOT Non-Continuous Verbs.
ADVERB PLACEMENT
The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.
Examples:
• You have only seen that movie one time.
• Have you only seen that movie one time?
ACTIVE / PASSIVE
Examples:
• Many tourists have visited that castle. Active
• That castle has been visited by many tourists. Passive
-They were learning in the classroom when I came
Rumusnya Present Perfect Tense begini:
Positif: S + have/has + V3
-I have written english lesson for 30 minutes
-You have read my lesson since 2 PM
Positif: S + was/were + Ving
Negatif: S + was/were + NOT + Ving
Tanya: Was/Were + S + Ving
I was sleeping when my friend came to my house yesterday
USE 1 Interrupted Action in the Past
Use the Past Continuous to indicate that a longer action in the past was interrupted. The interruption is usually a shorter action in the Simple Past. Remember this can be a real interruption or just an interruption in time.
• I was watching TV when she called.
• When the phone rang, she was writing a letter.
• While we were having the picnic, it started to rain.
• What were you doing when the earthquake started?
• I was listening to my iPod, so I didn't hear the fire alarm.
• You were not listening to me when I told you to turn the oven off.
• While John was sleeping last night, someone stole his car.
• Sammy was waiting for us when we got off the plane.
• While I was writing the email, the computer suddenly went off.
USE 2 Specific Time as an Interruption
In USE 1, described above, the Past Continuous is interrupted by a shorter action in the Simple Past. However, you can also use a specific time as an interruption.
Examples:
• Last night at 6 PM, I was eating dinner.
• At midnight, we were still driving through the desert.
• Yesterday at this time, I was sitting at my desk at work.
USE 3 Parallel Actions
When you use the Past Continuous with two actions in the same sentence, it expresses the idea that both actions were happening at the same time. The actions are parallel.
Examples:
• I was studying while he was making dinner.
• While Ellen was reading, Tim was watching television.
• Were you listening while he was talking?
• I wasn't paying attention while I was writing the letter, so I made several mistakes.
• What were you doing while you were waiting?
• Thomas wasn't working, and I wasn't working either.
• They were eating dinner, discussing their plans, and having a good time.
USE 4 Atmosphere
In English, we often use a series of parallel actions to describe the atmosphere at a particular time in the past.
Example:
• When I walked into the office, several people were busily typing, some were talking on the phones, the boss was yelling directions, and customers were waiting to be helped. One customer was yelling at a secretary and waving his hands. Others were complaining to each other about the bad service.
USE 5 Repetition and Irritation with "Always"
The Past Continuous with words such as "always" or "constantly" expresses the idea that something irritating or shocking often happened in the past. The concept is very similar to the expression "used to" but with negative emotion. Remember to put the words "always" or "constantly" between "be" and "verb+ing."
Examples:
• She was always coming to class late.
• He was constantly talking. He annoyed everyone.
• I didn't like them because they were always complaining.
While vs. When
Clauses are groups of words which have meaning, but are often not complete sentences. Some clauses begin with the word "when" such as "when she called" or "when it bit me." Other clauses begin with "while" such as "while she was sleeping" and "while he was surfing." When you talk about things in the past, "when" is most often followed by the verb tense Simple Past, whereas "while" is usually followed by Past Continuous. "While" expresses the idea of "during that time." Study the examples below. They have similar meanings, but they emphasize different parts of the sentence.
Examples:
• I was studying when she called.
• While I was studying, she called.
REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs / Mixed Verbs
It is important to remember that Non-Continuous Verbs cannot be used in any continuous tenses. Also, certain non-continuous meanings for Mixed Verbs cannot be used in continuous tenses. Instead of using Past Continuous with these verbs, you must use Simple Past.
Examples:
• Jane was being at my house when you arrived. Not Correct
• Jane was at my house when you arrived. Correct
ADVERB PLACEMENT
The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.
Examples:
• You were just studying when she called.
• Were you just studying when she called?
ACTIVE / PASSIVE
Examples:
• The salesman was helping the customer when the thief came into the store. Active
• The customer was being helped by the salesman when the thief came into the store. Passive
Present Perfect
FORM
[has/have + past participle]
Examples:
• You have seen that movie many times.
• Have you seen that movie many times?
• You have not seen that movie many times.
USE 1 Unspecified Time Before Now
We use the Present Perfect to say that an action happened at an unspecified time before now. The exact time is not important. You CANNOT use the Present Perfect with specific time expressions such as: yesterday, one year ago, last week, when I was a child, when I lived in Japan, at that moment, that day, one day, etc. We CAN use the Present Perfect with unspecific expressions such as: ever, never, once, many times, several times, before, so far, already, yet, etc.
Examples:
• I have seen that movie twenty times.
• I think I have met him once before.
• There have been many earthquakes in California.
• People have traveled to the Moon.
• People have not traveled to Mars.
• Have you read the book yet?
• Nobody has ever climbed that mountain.
• A: Has there ever been a war in the United States?
B: Yes, there has been a war in the United States.
TOPIC 1 Experience
You can use the Present Perfect to describe your experience. It is like saying, "I have the experience of..." You can also use this tense to say that you have never had a certain experience. The Present Perfect is NOT used to describe a specific event.
Examples:
• I have been to France.
This sentence means that you have had the experience of being in France. Maybe you have been there once, or several times.
• I have been to France three times.
You can add the number of times at the end of the sentence.
• I have never been to France.
This sentence means that you have not had the experience of going to France.
• I think I have seen that movie before.
• He has never traveled by train.
• Joan has studied two foreign languages.
TOPIC 2 Change Over Time
We often use the Present Perfect to talk about change that has happened over a period of time.
Examples:
• You have grown since the last time I saw you.
• The government has become more interested in arts education.
• Japanese has become one of the most popular courses at the university since the Asian studies program was established.
• My English has really improved since I moved to Australia.
TOPIC 3 Accomplishments
We often use the Present Perfect to list the accomplishments of individuals and humanity. You cannot mention a specific time.
Examples:
• Man has walked on the Moon.
• Our son has learned how to read.
• Doctors have cured many deadly diseases.
• Scientists have split the atom.
TOPIC 4 An Uncompleted Action You Are Expecting
We often use the Present Perfect to say that an action which we expected has not happened. Using the Present Perfect suggests that we are still waiting for the action to happen.
Examples:
• James has not finished his homework yet.
• Susan hasn't mastered Japanese, but she can communicate.
• Bill has still not arrived.
• The rain hasn't stopped.
TOPIC 5 Multiple Actions at Different Times
We also use the Present Perfect to talk about several different actions which have occurred in the past at different times. Present Perfect suggests the process is not complete and more actions are possible.
Examples:
• The army has attacked that city five times.
• I have had four quizzes and five tests so far this semester.
• We have had many major problems while working on this project.
• She has talked to several specialists about her problem, but nobody knows why she is sick.
Time Expressions with Present Perfect
When we use the Present Perfect it means that something has happened at some point in our lives before now. Remember, the exact time the action happened is not important.
Sometimes, we want to limit the time we are looking in for an experience. We can do this with expressions such as: in the last week, in the last year, this week, this month, so far, up to now, etc.
Examples:
• Have you been to Mexico in the last year?
• I have seen that movie six times in the last month.
• They have had three tests in the last week.
• She graduated from university less than three years ago. She has worked for three different companies so far.
• My car has broken down three times this week.
NOTICE
"Last year" and "in the last year" are very different in meaning. "Last year" means the year before now, and it is considered a specific time which requires Simple Past. "In the last year" means from 365 days ago until now. It is not considered a specific time, so it requires Present Perfect.
Examples:
• I went to Mexico last year.
I went to Mexico in the calendar year before this one.
• I have been to Mexico in the last year.
I have been to Mexico at least once at some point between 365 days ago and now.
USE 2 Duration From the Past Until Now (Non-Continuous Verbs)
With Non-Continuous Verbs and non-continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, we use the Present Perfect to show that something started in the past and has continued up until now. "For five minutes," "for two weeks," and "since Tuesday" are all durations which can be used with the Present Perfect.
Examples:
• I have had a cold for two weeks.
• She has been in England for six months.
• Mary has loved chocolate since she was a little girl.
Although the above use of Present Perfect is normally limited to Non-Continuous Verbs and non-continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, the words "live," "work," "teach," and "study" are sometimes used in this way even though they are NOT Non-Continuous Verbs.
ADVERB PLACEMENT
The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.
Examples:
• You have only seen that movie one time.
• Have you only seen that movie one time?
ACTIVE / PASSIVE
Examples:
• Many tourists have visited that castle. Active
• That castle has been visited by many tourists. Passive
-They were learning in the classroom when I came
Rumusnya Present Perfect Tense begini:
Positif: S + have/has + V3
-I have written english lesson for 30 minutes
-You have read my lesson since 2 PM
Senin, 17 Januari 2011
MK_STRUKTUR_DATA
DATA TUMPUKAN (STACK)
Tumpukan adalah suatu metode atau teknik menyimpan data atau mengambil data ke dan dari memori. Secara sederhana, tumpukan bisa diartikan sebagai suatu kumpulan data yang seolah-olah ada data yang diletakkan di atas data yang lain. Satu hal yang perlu diingat adalah bahwa kita bisa menambah (menyisipkan) data, dan mengambil (menghapus) data lewat ujung yang sama, yang disebut sebagai ujung atas tumpukan (top of stack). Sehingga data yang akan dikeluarkan pertama kali adalah data yang terakhir kali dimasukkan (First In Last Out atau Last In First Out).
Queue
Bersifat FIFO (First In First Out)
Elemen yang pertama masuk ke antrian akan keluar pertama kalinya
DEQUEUE adalah mengeluarkan satu elemen dari suatu Antrian
Antrian dapat dibuat dengan menggunakan: Liniear Array dan Circular Array
SENARAI BERANTAI (Linked List)
I.1 Pengantar
Ketika kita akan mengadakan pesta, sering kita membuat sebuah daftar (List) siapa saja yang akan kita undang. Siapa saja yang kita ingat, kita tuliskan terlebih dahulu sambil terus kita tambahkan daftar tersebut dengan nama-nama yang perlu kita undang dan bagi mereka yang telah diundang, kita hapus dalam daftar.
Itulah sedikit gambaran bagaimana cara kerja Linked List. Penambahan data dalam suatu daftar dapat dilakukan diposisi mana saja, begitu juga dengan penghapusan datanya. Linked List disebut juga dengan one-way list, adalah bentuk linear dari kumpulan nilai data (disebut nodes) yang saling berkait. Kaitan itu dilakukan oleh pengait (Pointer). Setiap node dibagi menjadi dua bagian, yaitu (1) nilai data (info), dan (2) pengait (link), yang disebut juga dengan link field atau next pointer field yang berisi alamat berikutnya dalam daftar.
REKURSI
Pengertian Rekursi
Rekursi (recursion) adalah proses dari suatu subprogram (dapat berupa fungsi atau prosedur) yang memanggil dirinya sendiri, sehingga dapat terjadi perulangan (looping). Rekursi merupakan teknik pemrograman yang penting, dan beberapa bahasa pemrograman modern mendukung keberadaan proses rekursi ini, termasuk bahasa pemrograman pascal.
QUEUE ( ANTRIAN )
- Kumpulan data dimana data masuk dan keluar pada ujung yang berbeda.
- Konsep utama FIFO ( Fisrt In First Out ).
{ Program Fibonacci menghitung suku ke N
Dari deret Fibonacci secara iterasi }
Uses crt;
Function Fibonacci (N : word) : word;
Var BatasBawah, BatasAtas, x, I : word;
Begin
If N<2 then
Fibonacci := N
Else
Begin
BatasBawah := 0;
BatasAtas := 1;
For I := 2 to N do
Begin
X := BatasBawah;
BatasBawah := BatasAtas;
BatasAtas := x + BatasBawah
End;
Fibonacci := BatasAtas;
End;
End;
{Program Utama}
Var N : word;
Begin
Clrscr;
Write(‘Suku ke berapa ? ‘);readln(N);
Writeln(‘Nilai suku ke ‘, N ,’ adalah ‘, Fibonacci(N));
Readln;
End.
{ Program Fibonacci menghitung suku ke N
Dari deret Fibonacci secara rekursi }
Uses crt;
Function Fibonacci (N : word) : word;
Begin
If N<2 then
Fibonacci := N
Else
Fibonacci := Fibonacci(N-2) + Fibonacci(N-1);
End;
{Program Utama}
Var N : word;
Begin
Clrscr;
Write(‘Suku ke berapa ? ‘);readln(N);
Writeln(‘Nilai suku ke ‘, N ,’ adalah ‘, Fibonacci(N));
Readln;
End.
{Program perkalian 2 bilangan bulat positip
dengan fungsi secara rekursi}
uses crt;
var a,b:word;
function kali(a,b:word):word;
begin
if b=1 then
kali := a
else
kali := a + kali(a,b-1);
end;
{Program Utama}
begin
clrscr;
write('nilai pertama : ');readln(a);
write('nilai kedua : ');readln(b);
writeln;
write(a ,' X ', b ,' = ');
write(kali(a,b));
readln;
end.
{Program factorial
menghitung N! dengan fungsi secara rekursi}
uses crt;
Function faktorial(N:integer):longint;
begin
if N <= 1 then
Faktorial := 1
else
Faktorial := N * Faktorial (N-1);
end;
{Program Utama}
var N : integer;
begin
clrscr;
write('Berapa Faktorial : ');readln(N);
writeln(N ,' Faktorial = ', Faktorial(N));
readln;
end.
{Program factorial
menghitung N! dengan prosedur secara rekursi}
uses crt;
procedure faktorial(N:integer; var hasil:longint);
begin
if N <= 1 then
hasil:=1
else
begin
faktorial(N-1,hasil);
hasil := hasil * N;
end;
end;
{Program Utama}
var n:integer;
f:longint;
begin
clrscr;
write('inputkan : ');readln(n);
faktorial(n,f);
writeln(n ,' faktorial = ', f);
readln;
end.
Tumpukan adalah suatu metode atau teknik menyimpan data atau mengambil data ke dan dari memori. Secara sederhana, tumpukan bisa diartikan sebagai suatu kumpulan data yang seolah-olah ada data yang diletakkan di atas data yang lain. Satu hal yang perlu diingat adalah bahwa kita bisa menambah (menyisipkan) data, dan mengambil (menghapus) data lewat ujung yang sama, yang disebut sebagai ujung atas tumpukan (top of stack). Sehingga data yang akan dikeluarkan pertama kali adalah data yang terakhir kali dimasukkan (First In Last Out atau Last In First Out).
Queue
Bersifat FIFO (First In First Out)
Elemen yang pertama masuk ke antrian akan keluar pertama kalinya
DEQUEUE adalah mengeluarkan satu elemen dari suatu Antrian
Antrian dapat dibuat dengan menggunakan: Liniear Array dan Circular Array
SENARAI BERANTAI (Linked List)
I.1 Pengantar
Ketika kita akan mengadakan pesta, sering kita membuat sebuah daftar (List) siapa saja yang akan kita undang. Siapa saja yang kita ingat, kita tuliskan terlebih dahulu sambil terus kita tambahkan daftar tersebut dengan nama-nama yang perlu kita undang dan bagi mereka yang telah diundang, kita hapus dalam daftar.
Itulah sedikit gambaran bagaimana cara kerja Linked List. Penambahan data dalam suatu daftar dapat dilakukan diposisi mana saja, begitu juga dengan penghapusan datanya. Linked List disebut juga dengan one-way list, adalah bentuk linear dari kumpulan nilai data (disebut nodes) yang saling berkait. Kaitan itu dilakukan oleh pengait (Pointer). Setiap node dibagi menjadi dua bagian, yaitu (1) nilai data (info), dan (2) pengait (link), yang disebut juga dengan link field atau next pointer field yang berisi alamat berikutnya dalam daftar.
REKURSI
Pengertian Rekursi
Rekursi (recursion) adalah proses dari suatu subprogram (dapat berupa fungsi atau prosedur) yang memanggil dirinya sendiri, sehingga dapat terjadi perulangan (looping). Rekursi merupakan teknik pemrograman yang penting, dan beberapa bahasa pemrograman modern mendukung keberadaan proses rekursi ini, termasuk bahasa pemrograman pascal.
QUEUE ( ANTRIAN )
- Kumpulan data dimana data masuk dan keluar pada ujung yang berbeda.
- Konsep utama FIFO ( Fisrt In First Out ).
{ Program Fibonacci menghitung suku ke N
Dari deret Fibonacci secara iterasi }
Uses crt;
Function Fibonacci (N : word) : word;
Var BatasBawah, BatasAtas, x, I : word;
Begin
If N<2 then
Fibonacci := N
Else
Begin
BatasBawah := 0;
BatasAtas := 1;
For I := 2 to N do
Begin
X := BatasBawah;
BatasBawah := BatasAtas;
BatasAtas := x + BatasBawah
End;
Fibonacci := BatasAtas;
End;
End;
{Program Utama}
Var N : word;
Begin
Clrscr;
Write(‘Suku ke berapa ? ‘);readln(N);
Writeln(‘Nilai suku ke ‘, N ,’ adalah ‘, Fibonacci(N));
Readln;
End.
{ Program Fibonacci menghitung suku ke N
Dari deret Fibonacci secara rekursi }
Uses crt;
Function Fibonacci (N : word) : word;
Begin
If N<2 then
Fibonacci := N
Else
Fibonacci := Fibonacci(N-2) + Fibonacci(N-1);
End;
{Program Utama}
Var N : word;
Begin
Clrscr;
Write(‘Suku ke berapa ? ‘);readln(N);
Writeln(‘Nilai suku ke ‘, N ,’ adalah ‘, Fibonacci(N));
Readln;
End.
{Program perkalian 2 bilangan bulat positip
dengan fungsi secara rekursi}
uses crt;
var a,b:word;
function kali(a,b:word):word;
begin
if b=1 then
kali := a
else
kali := a + kali(a,b-1);
end;
{Program Utama}
begin
clrscr;
write('nilai pertama : ');readln(a);
write('nilai kedua : ');readln(b);
writeln;
write(a ,' X ', b ,' = ');
write(kali(a,b));
readln;
end.
{Program factorial
menghitung N! dengan fungsi secara rekursi}
uses crt;
Function faktorial(N:integer):longint;
begin
if N <= 1 then
Faktorial := 1
else
Faktorial := N * Faktorial (N-1);
end;
{Program Utama}
var N : integer;
begin
clrscr;
write('Berapa Faktorial : ');readln(N);
writeln(N ,' Faktorial = ', Faktorial(N));
readln;
end.
{Program factorial
menghitung N! dengan prosedur secara rekursi}
uses crt;
procedure faktorial(N:integer; var hasil:longint);
begin
if N <= 1 then
hasil:=1
else
begin
faktorial(N-1,hasil);
hasil := hasil * N;
end;
end;
{Program Utama}
var n:integer;
f:longint;
begin
clrscr;
write('inputkan : ');readln(n);
faktorial(n,f);
writeln(n ,' faktorial = ', f);
readln;
end.
Struktur data
Data : adalah fakta atau kenyataan yang tercatat mengenai suatu objek.
Struktur data adalah koleksi dari variabel yang dinyatakan dengan sebuah nama, dengan sifat setiap variabel dapat memiliki tipe yang berlainan. struktur data biasa dipakai untuk mengelompokkan beberapa informasi yang berkaitan menjadi sebuah kesatuan...
Struktur data adalah cara menyimpan atau merepresentasikan data di dalam komputer agar bisa dipakai secara efisien
Sedangkan data adalah representasi dari fakta dunia nyata.
Fakta atau keterangan tentang kenyataan yang disimpan, direkam atau direpresentasikan dalam bentuk tulisan, suara, gambar, sinyal atau simbol
Pemakaian struktur data yang tepat di dalam proses pemrograman akan menghasilkan algoritma yang lebih jelas dan tepat, sehingga menjadikan program secara keseluruhan lebih efisien dan sederhana.
Beberapa struktur data :
�� Array (larik)
�� String
�� Record
�� List (daftar)
�� Tree
Stack adalah salah satu struktur data yang memiliki sistem kerja Last In First Out (LIFO), yang terakhir masuk pertama keluar. Dapat di ilustrasikan seperti sebuah tumpukan buku, ketika mengambil sebuah buku di dalam tumpukan itu maka harus diambil satu persatu dari buku yang paling atas dari tumpukan buku tersebut. Sebuah stack hanya dapat ditambahkan dan dikurangi elemennya hanya dari satu sisi yakni elemen atasnya atau biasa disebut Top Of Stack.
Queue adalah kumpulan data dengan penambahan data hanya melalui satu sisi, yaitu belakang (tail) dan penghapusan data hanya melalui sisi depan (head). Berbeda dengan stack yang bersifat LIFO maka queue bersifat FIFO(First In First Out), yaitu data yang pertama masuk akan keluar terlebih dahulu dan data yang terakhir masuk akan keluar terakhir.
QUEUE ( ANTRIAN )
- Kumpulan data dimana data masuk dan keluar pada ujung yang berbeda.
- Konsep utama FIFO ( Fisrt In First Out ).
Algoritma:
1. Input/tambah data
• Jika ada input maka no antrian yang semula 0 akan tambah 1 demi 1 sampai maksimal antrian.
2. Hapus/Pengambilan data
• Jika ada pengambilan data maka data dipindahkan di variabel lain contohnya temp, antrian ke-dua akan maju ke antrian pertama dan seterusnya. Dan jumlah antrian yang semula maksimal akan berkurang 1 demi 1 sampai antrian 0 kembali.
Operasi pada queue
• CREATE
Membuat antrian baru yang masih kosong.
• FULL
Untuk memeriksa apakah antrian sudah penuh..
• PUSH
Menambah sebuah elemen ( data ) kedalam antrian.
Syarat: tidak bisa dilakukan jika antrian sudah penuh.
• EMPTY
• POP
Mengambil 1 elemen dari sebuah antrian.
Syarat: antrian tidak boleh kosong.
REKURSI
Rekursi (recursion) adalah proses dari suatu subprogram (dapat berupa fungsi atau prosedur) yang memanggil dirinya sendiri, sehingga dapat terjadi perulangan (looping). Rekursi merupakan teknik pemrograman yang penting, dan beberapa bahasa pemrograman modern mendukung keberadaan proses rekursi ini, termasuk bahasa pemrograman pascal.
Beda rekursi dan iteratif
Rekursi:
Perulangan rekursif merupakan salah satu metode di dalam pemrograman yang mana dalam sebuah fungsi terdapat intruksi yang memanggil fungsi itu sendri, atau lebih sering disebut memanggil dirinya sendiri.
Iterasi:
Perulangan iteratif merupakan perulangan yang melakukan proses perulangan terhadap sekelompok instruksi. Perulangan dilakukan dalam batasan syarat tertentu. Ketika syarat tersebut tidak terpenuhi lagi maka perulangan akan terhenti.
{Program rekursi deret dalam bentuk prosedur}
Uses crt;
procedure deret(N:word);
Begin
write(N:3);
if N < 10 Then
deret(N+1);
end;
{Program Utama}
var N:word;
Begin
clrscr;
N := 0;
deret(N);
readln;
end.
Kelemahan Rekursi
Untuk kasus-kasus tertentu, rekursi dapat mempunyai kelemahan, yaitu suatu proses yang sudah dilakukan akan diproses ulang kembali, sehingga akan membuat proses menjadi lama.
Uses crt;
Function Fibonacci (N : word) : word;
Begin
If N<2 then
Fibonacci := N
Else
Fibonacci := Fibonacci(N-2) + Fibonacci(N-1);
End;
{Program Utama}
Var N : word;
Begin
Clrscr;
Write(‘Suku ke berapa ? ‘);readln(N);
Writeln(‘Nilai suku ke ‘, N ,’ adalah ‘, Fibonacci(N));
Readln;
End
Penerapan Tumpukan(Stack)
- Mengubah Notasi Infix ke Postfix
1. Seluruh operand dan operator dipush ke dalam stack satu persatu dimulai dari awal.
2. operasi pop terjadi bila ada operator yang masuk kedalam stack.
3. Bila operator yang masuk kedalam stack, hirarkinya <= maka operator yang ada dalam stack harus dikeluarkan.
4. bila ada ) masuk maka semua operan dan operator harus dikeluarkan dari dalam stack sebatas (.
5. Operator dan operand dibawah ( tidak boleh dioperasika selama )belum masuk kedalam stack.
Contoh Rekursi Pangkat
program pangkat;
uses wincrt;
var A,x,i,hasil:integer;
begin
writeln('masukkan bilangan yang akan dipangkatkan');readln(A);
writeln('masukkan bilangan pangkat');readln(x);
hasil:=1;
for i:=1 to x do
hasil:=hasil*A;
writeln('hasil dari ',A,' pangkat ',x,' adalah ',hasil);
readln;
end.
Contoh Rekursi
Uses wincrt;
var i : byte;
procedure rekursi;
begin
if i<5 then
begin
writeln('Struktur data');
i := i + 1;
rekursi;
end;
end;
{Program Utama}
begin
clrscr;
i := 0;
rekursi;
readln;
end.
Program rekursi dengan prosedur
Uses crt;
procedure deret(N:word);
Begin
write(N:3);
if N < 10 Then
deret(N+1);
end;
{Program Utama}
var N:word;
Begin
clrscr;
N := 0;
deret(N);
readln;
end.
Menghitung faktorial dengan rekursi
uses crt;
procedure faktorial(N:integer; var hasil:longint);
begin
if N <= 1 then
hasil:=1
else
begin
faktorial(N-1,hasil);
hasil := hasil * N;
end;
end;
Struktur data adalah koleksi dari variabel yang dinyatakan dengan sebuah nama, dengan sifat setiap variabel dapat memiliki tipe yang berlainan. struktur data biasa dipakai untuk mengelompokkan beberapa informasi yang berkaitan menjadi sebuah kesatuan...
Struktur data adalah cara menyimpan atau merepresentasikan data di dalam komputer agar bisa dipakai secara efisien
Sedangkan data adalah representasi dari fakta dunia nyata.
Fakta atau keterangan tentang kenyataan yang disimpan, direkam atau direpresentasikan dalam bentuk tulisan, suara, gambar, sinyal atau simbol
Pemakaian struktur data yang tepat di dalam proses pemrograman akan menghasilkan algoritma yang lebih jelas dan tepat, sehingga menjadikan program secara keseluruhan lebih efisien dan sederhana.
Beberapa struktur data :
�� Array (larik)
�� String
�� Record
�� List (daftar)
�� Tree
Stack adalah salah satu struktur data yang memiliki sistem kerja Last In First Out (LIFO), yang terakhir masuk pertama keluar. Dapat di ilustrasikan seperti sebuah tumpukan buku, ketika mengambil sebuah buku di dalam tumpukan itu maka harus diambil satu persatu dari buku yang paling atas dari tumpukan buku tersebut. Sebuah stack hanya dapat ditambahkan dan dikurangi elemennya hanya dari satu sisi yakni elemen atasnya atau biasa disebut Top Of Stack.
Queue adalah kumpulan data dengan penambahan data hanya melalui satu sisi, yaitu belakang (tail) dan penghapusan data hanya melalui sisi depan (head). Berbeda dengan stack yang bersifat LIFO maka queue bersifat FIFO(First In First Out), yaitu data yang pertama masuk akan keluar terlebih dahulu dan data yang terakhir masuk akan keluar terakhir.
QUEUE ( ANTRIAN )
- Kumpulan data dimana data masuk dan keluar pada ujung yang berbeda.
- Konsep utama FIFO ( Fisrt In First Out ).
Algoritma:
1. Input/tambah data
• Jika ada input maka no antrian yang semula 0 akan tambah 1 demi 1 sampai maksimal antrian.
2. Hapus/Pengambilan data
• Jika ada pengambilan data maka data dipindahkan di variabel lain contohnya temp, antrian ke-dua akan maju ke antrian pertama dan seterusnya. Dan jumlah antrian yang semula maksimal akan berkurang 1 demi 1 sampai antrian 0 kembali.
Operasi pada queue
• CREATE
Membuat antrian baru yang masih kosong.
• FULL
Untuk memeriksa apakah antrian sudah penuh..
• PUSH
Menambah sebuah elemen ( data ) kedalam antrian.
Syarat: tidak bisa dilakukan jika antrian sudah penuh.
• EMPTY
• POP
Mengambil 1 elemen dari sebuah antrian.
Syarat: antrian tidak boleh kosong.
REKURSI
Rekursi (recursion) adalah proses dari suatu subprogram (dapat berupa fungsi atau prosedur) yang memanggil dirinya sendiri, sehingga dapat terjadi perulangan (looping). Rekursi merupakan teknik pemrograman yang penting, dan beberapa bahasa pemrograman modern mendukung keberadaan proses rekursi ini, termasuk bahasa pemrograman pascal.
Beda rekursi dan iteratif
Rekursi:
Perulangan rekursif merupakan salah satu metode di dalam pemrograman yang mana dalam sebuah fungsi terdapat intruksi yang memanggil fungsi itu sendri, atau lebih sering disebut memanggil dirinya sendiri.
Iterasi:
Perulangan iteratif merupakan perulangan yang melakukan proses perulangan terhadap sekelompok instruksi. Perulangan dilakukan dalam batasan syarat tertentu. Ketika syarat tersebut tidak terpenuhi lagi maka perulangan akan terhenti.
{Program rekursi deret dalam bentuk prosedur}
Uses crt;
procedure deret(N:word);
Begin
write(N:3);
if N < 10 Then
deret(N+1);
end;
{Program Utama}
var N:word;
Begin
clrscr;
N := 0;
deret(N);
readln;
end.
Kelemahan Rekursi
Untuk kasus-kasus tertentu, rekursi dapat mempunyai kelemahan, yaitu suatu proses yang sudah dilakukan akan diproses ulang kembali, sehingga akan membuat proses menjadi lama.
Uses crt;
Function Fibonacci (N : word) : word;
Begin
If N<2 then
Fibonacci := N
Else
Fibonacci := Fibonacci(N-2) + Fibonacci(N-1);
End;
{Program Utama}
Var N : word;
Begin
Clrscr;
Write(‘Suku ke berapa ? ‘);readln(N);
Writeln(‘Nilai suku ke ‘, N ,’ adalah ‘, Fibonacci(N));
Readln;
End
Penerapan Tumpukan(Stack)
- Mengubah Notasi Infix ke Postfix
1. Seluruh operand dan operator dipush ke dalam stack satu persatu dimulai dari awal.
2. operasi pop terjadi bila ada operator yang masuk kedalam stack.
3. Bila operator yang masuk kedalam stack, hirarkinya <= maka operator yang ada dalam stack harus dikeluarkan.
4. bila ada ) masuk maka semua operan dan operator harus dikeluarkan dari dalam stack sebatas (.
5. Operator dan operand dibawah ( tidak boleh dioperasika selama )belum masuk kedalam stack.
Contoh Rekursi Pangkat
program pangkat;
uses wincrt;
var A,x,i,hasil:integer;
begin
writeln('masukkan bilangan yang akan dipangkatkan');readln(A);
writeln('masukkan bilangan pangkat');readln(x);
hasil:=1;
for i:=1 to x do
hasil:=hasil*A;
writeln('hasil dari ',A,' pangkat ',x,' adalah ',hasil);
readln;
end.
Contoh Rekursi
Uses wincrt;
var i : byte;
procedure rekursi;
begin
if i<5 then
begin
writeln('Struktur data');
i := i + 1;
rekursi;
end;
end;
{Program Utama}
begin
clrscr;
i := 0;
rekursi;
readln;
end.
Program rekursi dengan prosedur
Uses crt;
procedure deret(N:word);
Begin
write(N:3);
if N < 10 Then
deret(N+1);
end;
{Program Utama}
var N:word;
Begin
clrscr;
N := 0;
deret(N);
readln;
end.
Menghitung faktorial dengan rekursi
uses crt;
procedure faktorial(N:integer; var hasil:longint);
begin
if N <= 1 then
hasil:=1
else
begin
faktorial(N-1,hasil);
hasil := hasil * N;
end;
end;
Minggu, 16 Januari 2011
Bahasa Indonesia
Kedudukan dan Fungsi Bahasa Indonesia sebagai Bahasa Nasional
kedudukannya sebagai bahasa nasional, bahasa Indonesia berfungsi sebagai (1) lambang kebanggaan nasional, (2) lambang identitas nasional, (3) alat pemersatu berbagai-bagai masyarakat yang berbeda-beda latar belakang sosial budaya dan bahasanya, dan (4) alat perhubungan antarbudaya antardaerah.
- Sebagai lambang kebanggaan nasional, bahasa Indonesia ‘memancarkan’ nilai-nilai sosial budaya luhur bangsa Indonesia.
- Sebagai lambang identitas nasional, bahasa Indonesia merupakan ‘lambang’ bangsa Indonesia. Ini beratri, dengan bahasa Indonesia akan dapat diketahui siapa kita, yaitu sifat, perangai, dan watak kita sebagai bangsa Indonesia
- Dengan fungsi yang ketiga memungkinkan masyarakat Indonesia yang beragam latar belakang sosial budaya dan berbeda-beda bahasanya dapat menyatu dan bersatu dalam kebangsaan, cita-cita, dan rasa nasib yang sama.
- Dengan bahasa Indonesia kita dapat saling berhubungan untuk segala aspek kehidupan. Bagi pemerintah, segala kebijakan dan strategi yang berhubungan dengan ideologi, politik, ekonomi, sosial, budaya, pertahanan, dan kemanan (disingkat: ipoleksosbudhankam) mudah diinformasikan kepada warganya.
Kedudukan dan Fungsi Bahasa Indonesia sebagai Bahasa Negara/Resmi
dalam kedudukannya sebagai bahasa negara, bahasa Indonesia befungsi sebagai
(1) bahasa resmi kenegaraan,
(2) bahasa pengantar resmi di lembaga-lembaga pendidikan,
(3) bahasa resmi di dalam perhubungan pada tingkat nasional untuk kepentingan perencanaan dan pelaksanaan pembangunan serta pemerintah, dan
(4) bahasa resmi di dalam pengembangan kebudayaan dan pemanfaatan ilmu pengetahuan serta teknologi modern.
Kaidah-Kaidah Umum bahasa indonesia
1. Bahasa Indonesia tidak mengenal perubahan bentuk kata untuk menyatakan jenis kelamin.
2. bahasa Indonesia tidak mengenal perubahan bentuk kata untuk menyatakan jamak.
3. Bahasa Indonesia tidak mengenal perubahan bentuk kata untuk menyatakan waktu.
4. Susunan kelompok kata dalam bahasa Indonesia biasanya mempergunakan hukum D-M. contoh : rumah sakit, jam tangan, mobil mewah, baju renang, kamar rias
5. Bahasa Indonesia juga mengenal lafal baku, yaitu lafal yang tidak dipengaruhi oleh lafal asing dan/atau lafal daerah.
Ragam bahasa indonesia
*Lisan --> baku --> Daerah, nasional(-->Fungsional : Jurnalistik, ekonomi, hukum,dll)
--> tidak baku
*Tulisan : (Baku, tidak baku)-->kemantapan dinamis(pola, tata bahasa), cendikia(bahasa resmi), seragam(standar).
bahasa indonesia yang baik sesuai dengan situasi dan kondisi
bahasa indonesia yang benar sesuai dengan EYD
EYD
- partikel pun
adapun, andaipun, ataupun,
bagaimanapun, biarpun, kalaupun, kendatipun, maupun, meskipun, sekalipun,
sungguhpun, walaupun ditulis serangkai.
Misalnya:
Adapun sebab-sebabnya belum diketahui.
Bagaimanapun juga akan dicobanya menyelesaikan tugas itu.
Baik mahasiswa maupun mahasiswi ikut berdemonstrasi.
Sekalipun belum memuaskan, hasil pekerjaannya dapat dijadikan pegangan.
Walaupun miskin, ia selalu gembira.
Diksi/Pilihan Kata
1. Denotasi/Konotasi
2. Sinonim
3. Perubahan makna(karena zaman)
- Kesejarahan : - usang(gerombolan) - mati dan hidup lagi(canggih)
- Intonasi
- Kesosialan
- Tabu
4. Perbedaan dari dan daripada
- dari = asal, tempat, bagian dari sesuatu
- daripada= perbandingan
Paragraf Deduktif
sampah yang setiap hari kita buang sebenarnya dapat dibedakan menjadi dua macam, yaitu sampah organik, dan sampah anorganik. Sampah organik adalah sampah yang mudah membusuk. Contohnya, sisa makanan dan daun-daunan yang umumnya basah. Sampah anorganik adalah adalah sampah yang sulit atau tidak dapat membusuk. Contohnya, plastik, kaca, kain, karet, dan lain-lainnya.
Paragraf Induksi
Lebaran masih seminggu lagi, tetapi harga sembako seperti beras, gula, minyak, tepung, telur, dan lain-lain telah naik secara signifikan. Makanan yang biasanya dikonsumsi dalam merayakan Lebaran seperti roti, sirup, dan lain-lain melonjak harganya. Bahan pakaian dan pakaian jadi untuk berlebaran, seperti busana muslimah, baju koko, kopiah, kerudung, sajadah, dan sejenisnya pun tidak ketinggalan dari kenaikan harga yang cukup tinggi. Kenaikan harga barang-barang selalu terjadi menjelang Lebaran pada setiap tahun.
kedudukannya sebagai bahasa nasional, bahasa Indonesia berfungsi sebagai (1) lambang kebanggaan nasional, (2) lambang identitas nasional, (3) alat pemersatu berbagai-bagai masyarakat yang berbeda-beda latar belakang sosial budaya dan bahasanya, dan (4) alat perhubungan antarbudaya antardaerah.
- Sebagai lambang kebanggaan nasional, bahasa Indonesia ‘memancarkan’ nilai-nilai sosial budaya luhur bangsa Indonesia.
- Sebagai lambang identitas nasional, bahasa Indonesia merupakan ‘lambang’ bangsa Indonesia. Ini beratri, dengan bahasa Indonesia akan dapat diketahui siapa kita, yaitu sifat, perangai, dan watak kita sebagai bangsa Indonesia
- Dengan fungsi yang ketiga memungkinkan masyarakat Indonesia yang beragam latar belakang sosial budaya dan berbeda-beda bahasanya dapat menyatu dan bersatu dalam kebangsaan, cita-cita, dan rasa nasib yang sama.
- Dengan bahasa Indonesia kita dapat saling berhubungan untuk segala aspek kehidupan. Bagi pemerintah, segala kebijakan dan strategi yang berhubungan dengan ideologi, politik, ekonomi, sosial, budaya, pertahanan, dan kemanan (disingkat: ipoleksosbudhankam) mudah diinformasikan kepada warganya.
Kedudukan dan Fungsi Bahasa Indonesia sebagai Bahasa Negara/Resmi
dalam kedudukannya sebagai bahasa negara, bahasa Indonesia befungsi sebagai
(1) bahasa resmi kenegaraan,
(2) bahasa pengantar resmi di lembaga-lembaga pendidikan,
(3) bahasa resmi di dalam perhubungan pada tingkat nasional untuk kepentingan perencanaan dan pelaksanaan pembangunan serta pemerintah, dan
(4) bahasa resmi di dalam pengembangan kebudayaan dan pemanfaatan ilmu pengetahuan serta teknologi modern.
Kaidah-Kaidah Umum bahasa indonesia
1. Bahasa Indonesia tidak mengenal perubahan bentuk kata untuk menyatakan jenis kelamin.
2. bahasa Indonesia tidak mengenal perubahan bentuk kata untuk menyatakan jamak.
3. Bahasa Indonesia tidak mengenal perubahan bentuk kata untuk menyatakan waktu.
4. Susunan kelompok kata dalam bahasa Indonesia biasanya mempergunakan hukum D-M. contoh : rumah sakit, jam tangan, mobil mewah, baju renang, kamar rias
5. Bahasa Indonesia juga mengenal lafal baku, yaitu lafal yang tidak dipengaruhi oleh lafal asing dan/atau lafal daerah.
Ragam bahasa indonesia
*Lisan --> baku --> Daerah, nasional(-->Fungsional : Jurnalistik, ekonomi, hukum,dll)
--> tidak baku
*Tulisan : (Baku, tidak baku)-->kemantapan dinamis(pola, tata bahasa), cendikia(bahasa resmi), seragam(standar).
bahasa indonesia yang baik sesuai dengan situasi dan kondisi
bahasa indonesia yang benar sesuai dengan EYD
EYD
- partikel pun
adapun, andaipun, ataupun,
bagaimanapun, biarpun, kalaupun, kendatipun, maupun, meskipun, sekalipun,
sungguhpun, walaupun ditulis serangkai.
Misalnya:
Adapun sebab-sebabnya belum diketahui.
Bagaimanapun juga akan dicobanya menyelesaikan tugas itu.
Baik mahasiswa maupun mahasiswi ikut berdemonstrasi.
Sekalipun belum memuaskan, hasil pekerjaannya dapat dijadikan pegangan.
Walaupun miskin, ia selalu gembira.
Diksi/Pilihan Kata
1. Denotasi/Konotasi
2. Sinonim
3. Perubahan makna(karena zaman)
- Kesejarahan : - usang(gerombolan) - mati dan hidup lagi(canggih)
- Intonasi
- Kesosialan
- Tabu
4. Perbedaan dari dan daripada
- dari = asal, tempat, bagian dari sesuatu
- daripada= perbandingan
Paragraf Deduktif
sampah yang setiap hari kita buang sebenarnya dapat dibedakan menjadi dua macam, yaitu sampah organik, dan sampah anorganik. Sampah organik adalah sampah yang mudah membusuk. Contohnya, sisa makanan dan daun-daunan yang umumnya basah. Sampah anorganik adalah adalah sampah yang sulit atau tidak dapat membusuk. Contohnya, plastik, kaca, kain, karet, dan lain-lainnya.
Paragraf Induksi
Lebaran masih seminggu lagi, tetapi harga sembako seperti beras, gula, minyak, tepung, telur, dan lain-lain telah naik secara signifikan. Makanan yang biasanya dikonsumsi dalam merayakan Lebaran seperti roti, sirup, dan lain-lain melonjak harganya. Bahan pakaian dan pakaian jadi untuk berlebaran, seperti busana muslimah, baju koko, kopiah, kerudung, sajadah, dan sejenisnya pun tidak ketinggalan dari kenaikan harga yang cukup tinggi. Kenaikan harga barang-barang selalu terjadi menjelang Lebaran pada setiap tahun.
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